Walmart Temporarily Overcharged Customers in Manitoba for One Litre Milk Cartons An Unfolding Story

Walmart temporarily overcharged customers in manitoba for one litre milk cartons – Hold onto your shopping carts, folks, because we’re diving headfirst into a story that involves something we all know and love: milk. Specifically, one-litre milk cartons. And Walmart. This isn’t just a simple tale of groceries; it’s a peek behind the curtain at a situation where prices went a little… wonky.

We’re talking about Walmart temporarily overcharging customers in Manitoba for their milk, a situation that sparked a mix of surprise, concern, and perhaps a few raised eyebrows. Let’s unpack this dairy drama, shall we?

From the moment the till began ringing up prices that didn’t quite match the shelf labels, a chain reaction of events unfolded. The overcharging, occurring during a specific timeframe, affected the wallets of many shoppers, even if it was just a few cents at a time. The amount, though seemingly small, added up, sparking questions about the cause, the response, and the overall impact on the community.

It’s a reminder that even the biggest retailers can face hiccups, and it’s how they respond that truly matters.

The Manitoba Milk Misstep

A recent hiccup at Walmart stores in Manitoba has caused a stir, leaving customers with a slightly sour taste, not from the milk itself, but from the price tag. The situation, while addressed, warrants a closer look at the details.

Overcharge Overview

The core of the issue revolves around a temporary overcharge on one-litre milk cartons at various Walmart locations within the province of Manitoba. This wasn’t a systemic price hike across all items; it was a specific, localized error affecting a staple grocery item.

Timeline of the Error

The overcharging incident occurred over a specific timeframe, impacting consumers during a defined period.The overcharging period, as confirmed by Walmart’s official statements and customer reports, spanned from approximately October 26th, 2024, to November 1st, 2024. This window of time indicates a short-lived, yet impactful, error.

Extent of the Financial Impact

The financial impact on consumers varied depending on their milk purchases during the affected period. Understanding the specifics of the overcharge is crucial for assessing the overall consequences.The overcharge per one-litre milk carton was approximately $0.25. While seemingly small on an individual basis, the cumulative effect could be more significant for families with higher milk consumption.

This equates to roughly a 10% increase in the price of a single carton, depending on the original price.

For example, if the original price of the milk carton was $2.50, the overcharge of $0.25 would increase the price to $2.75. For a household purchasing several cartons a week, the added cost quickly accumulates. The error highlighted the importance of vigilance in checking receipts and being aware of price discrepancies, especially when dealing with frequently purchased items.

Walmart’s Response

The Manitoba Milk Misstep, while regrettable, prompted a swift and multifaceted response from Walmart. Their actions, from initial acknowledgement to customer redress, demonstrate a commitment to mitigating the impact of the overcharges and regaining consumer trust.

Initial Reaction to the Overcharging Issue, Walmart temporarily overcharged customers in manitoba for one litre milk cartons

Upon discovering the discrepancy in pricing, Walmart’s initial reaction was a combination of internal investigation and external communication. This involved pinpointing the source of the error within their point-of-sale systems and assessing the scope of the problem. They moved quickly to contain the situation.

Steps Taken to Address the Problem

Walmart took several crucial steps to rectify the overcharging issue. These actions were designed to both correct the immediate problem and prevent future occurrences.

• Immediate Price Correction: The most immediate action was to correct the price of the one-litre milk cartons at all affected Manitoba locations. This ensured that customers were no longer being overcharged at the point of purchase.
• System Review: A comprehensive review of the pricing systems and processes was initiated. This involved examining the software, data entry procedures, and any potential human error points. The aim was to identify the root cause of the overcharge.
• Employee Training: Additional training was provided to employees involved in pricing and inventory management. This reinforced the importance of accuracy and the procedures for ensuring correct pricing.
• Internal Audit: Walmart conducted an internal audit to verify the effectiveness of the corrective measures and to ensure that all affected customers were being treated fairly.

Methods Used to Inform Customers About the Overcharges

Communicating the situation to customers was a vital part of Walmart’s response. They used a variety of methods to inform customers about the overcharges, offering transparency and opportunities for redress.

• In-Store Signage: Clear and concise signage was placed in affected stores, notifying customers about the overcharging and directing them to information on how to seek reimbursement.
• Public Statements: Walmart issued public statements through various media channels, including press releases and social media posts. These statements acknowledged the error, apologized to customers, and Artikeld the steps being taken to resolve the issue.
• Customer Service Channels: Walmart provided dedicated customer service channels, such as phone lines and online portals, for customers to inquire about the overcharges and seek refunds. This ensured that customers had easy access to assistance.
• Refund Process: A streamlined refund process was established, allowing customers who had been overcharged to receive compensation. This process was designed to be straightforward and accessible.

Affected Customers

The recent pricing discrepancy at Manitoba Walmart locations, involving the overcharging of customers for one-litre milk cartons, has understandably sparked significant concern. Understanding the breadth of this issue and its potential impact is crucial for assessing the situation and ensuring appropriate remedies. Let’s delve into the specifics of who was affected and the implications they faced.

Estimating Customer Reach

Pinpointing the precise number of affected customers is a complex task. Walmart’s operational data, combined with sales figures for the relevant period, are critical in determining the scope of the overcharging. It’s safe to assume that a substantial number of individuals who purchased milk cartons during the affected timeframe were potentially impacted.The factors that influence the estimate include:

• Sales Volume: The total number of one-litre milk cartons sold across all Manitoba Walmart stores during the overcharge period is a fundamental piece of data. This figure provides the initial baseline.
• Transaction Records: Analyzing point-of-sale data, specifically transaction records, allows for the identification of purchases that were subject to the incorrect pricing. This is where the specific overcharged transactions are flagged.
• Store Foot Traffic: Understanding the customer traffic volume in each store during the period can help to refine the estimate. Stores with higher foot traffic likely experienced a greater number of affected transactions.

An analogy: Imagine a busy bakery where a small pricing error on a popular pastry occurs for a week. The bakery owner would need to review sales logs, compare them to the standard price, and calculate how many customers were affected. Similarly, Walmart must use its sales and transaction data to calculate the scope of the issue.

Financial Implications for Customers

The financial impact on individual customers, while seemingly minor on a per-carton basis, can still accumulate, and the cumulative effect can be significant. This section examines the specific monetary impact and how it can affect customer budgets.The potential financial effects are:

• Per-Carton Overcharge: The difference between the intended price and the price customers actually paid is the most direct financial impact. Even a small overcharge on each carton adds up over multiple purchases.
• Impact on Grocery Budgets: For frequent milk purchasers, or families with multiple members, the overcharge could affect their grocery budgets. Over time, the accumulated overcharges could have a tangible effect on their available funds for other essential purchases.
• Opportunity Cost: The overcharged amount, however small, represents a missed opportunity. This money could have been allocated to other purchases, savings, or investments.

Consider this example: If a customer regularly purchases two cartons of milk per week and is overcharged by 25 cents per carton, the overcharge amounts to $26 per year. While this might seem negligible, it could potentially be a family’s lunch money for a week.

Customer Concerns and Reactions

The overcharging incident naturally elicited a range of responses from customers. Understanding these concerns is vital for Walmart to address the situation effectively and regain customer trust.Common customer reactions included:

• Frustration and Disappointment: Many customers expressed frustration at being overcharged, especially considering the store’s size and reputation.
• Loss of Trust: Some customers voiced a loss of trust in Walmart’s pricing accuracy and transparency.
• Financial Burden: Even small overcharges can be a burden, especially for low-income families and those with tight budgets.
• Calls for Transparency and Action: Customers demanded transparency from Walmart regarding the overcharge and its plans to rectify the situation.

Customer feedback, gathered through social media, customer service interactions, and news reports, has illuminated the public’s sentiments. These reactions provide critical insight into the impact of the overcharging and underscore the importance of Walmart’s response. For instance, a customer might tweet, “Just found out I was overcharged for milk at Walmart! This is unacceptable.” Another might say, “I rely on Walmart for affordable groceries, and this pricing error is disappointing.”

Causes and Reasons

The recent overcharging incident at Walmart in Manitoba, involving one-litre milk cartons, necessitates a thorough examination of the underlying causes. Understanding the contributing factors is crucial for preventing similar occurrences in the future. A combination of operational inefficiencies and potential technological glitches likely played a role in this misstep. Let’s delve into the specifics.

Probable Cause(s) of the Overcharging Incident

Several factors likely converged to trigger the overcharging of customers. It’s improbable that a single issue was solely responsible. Instead, it was likely a confluence of events.

Potential Factors Contributing to the Error

Several elements could have contributed to the error, ranging from human error to system malfunctions. Here’s a look at some of the more plausible contributing factors:

• Pricing Data Entry Errors: The most direct cause might be an error during the input of the price for the milk cartons into the point-of-sale (POS) system. This could have been due to a manual mistake during price updates, or even a simple typo. Think of it like a baker accidentally adding too much salt to a cake recipe.
• System Glitches: Software bugs or malfunctions within the POS system or its related databases could have led to incorrect pricing. This could range from minor glitches to more significant system-wide failures. Imagine a computer game with a bug that causes the character to behave erratically; the POS system could have been exhibiting similar unexpected behaviour.
• Inaccurate Inventory Management: If the inventory system wasn’t accurately reflecting the current stock levels and associated prices, this could have caused discrepancies. A mismatch between the physical stock and the digital records could lead to incorrect pricing being applied. Picture a library where books are mis-shelved; finding the right price becomes a challenge.
• Lack of Adequate Price Verification: Insufficient checks and balances in the pricing process could have allowed errors to slip through. If there weren’t robust systems in place to verify prices before they were applied at the checkout, mistakes would be more likely to occur. It’s like proofreading an essay without a second pair of eyes.
• Human Error in Price Updates: The individuals responsible for updating the prices of items could have made mistakes. This could involve entering the wrong price, or selecting the incorrect product code. The price updates are a critical process.

Internal Systems That May Have Failed

Several internal systems could have failed, leading to the incident. These failures, individually or in combination, could have contributed to the overcharging.

• Point-of-Sale (POS) System: The POS system itself, responsible for processing transactions, could have experienced a malfunction, either in software or in the way it interacted with the pricing database. This is the first line of defense, the primary system.
• Pricing Database: The database containing the price information for all products is a critical component. If this database was corrupted, or if updates weren’t properly applied, incorrect pricing would be inevitable. It’s like the central brain that directs all pricing actions.
• Inventory Management System: An inaccurate inventory management system could have led to incorrect product identification or pricing. This system ensures the correct products are being sold at the correct price.
• Price Verification System: A failure in the systems responsible for verifying prices could have allowed the incorrect pricing to go undetected. Imagine a quality control system that doesn’t catch defects.
• Training and Oversight Systems: Inadequate training of staff on pricing procedures, or a lack of proper oversight, could have contributed to human error. Training ensures that staff understands and correctly applies the system’s functions.

Regulatory Involvement

When a retail giant like Walmart stumbles, especially when it affects consumers’ wallets, the authorities tend to take notice. The Manitoba Milk Misstep wasn’t just a PR blip; it triggered a flurry of activity from regulatory bodies and consumer protection agencies, each with its own role to play in ensuring fairness and accountability.

Investigations and Inquiries

The regulatory landscape sprang into action following reports of overcharging. These investigations aimed to determine the extent of the problem, the root causes, and whether any laws or regulations had been violated.The Competition Bureau, a federal agency responsible for enforcing the Competition Act, would likely have taken a keen interest. They would investigate whether Walmart’s pricing practices constituted deceptive marketing or anti-competitive behavior.* The investigation would involve a thorough examination of Walmart’s pricing systems and internal controls.

This would include:

Reviewing the point-of-sale systems to understand how the overcharges occurred.

Examining internal communications and documentation to determine the source of the pricing errors.

Interviewing Walmart employees to gather information about the incident.

* The Manitoba government, through its consumer protection agency, would also have launched an inquiry. This provincial body would focus on ensuring that consumers were treated fairly and that their rights were protected under provincial consumer protection legislation.* The scope of the inquiry might have encompassed:

Assessing the impact of the overcharges on affected consumers.

Evaluating Walmart’s response to the issue, including its efforts to rectify the situation.

Determining whether Walmart had complied with provincial consumer protection laws.

Penalties and Actions Taken

The consequences for Walmart would depend on the findings of the investigations and the specific laws that were violated. Penalties could range from financial fines to changes in business practices.* The Competition Bureau has the power to impose significant financial penalties on companies found to have engaged in deceptive marketing practices. These penalties can run into the millions of dollars, depending on the severity and duration of the violations.* The Manitoba government could also impose penalties, such as fines, for violations of provincial consumer protection laws.

Additionally, the government might require Walmart to take specific actions to remedy the situation.* Walmart would likely be required to implement measures to prevent future overcharging incidents. This could include:

Improving its pricing systems and internal controls.

Providing additional training to its employees.

Conducting regular audits of its pricing practices.

* In some cases, the regulatory bodies might require Walmart to offer compensation to affected consumers. This could involve refunding the overcharged amounts or providing other forms of redress.

“Regulatory actions aim to deter future misconduct and to ensure that consumers are treated fairly.”

Customer Redress and Compensation

Following the overcharging incident, Walmart recognized its responsibility to rectify the situation and ensure that affected customers were fairly compensated for the inconvenience and financial impact. The company swiftly implemented a comprehensive redress and compensation plan, demonstrating its commitment to customer satisfaction and regaining public trust.

Compensation Plan Details

Walmart’s compensation plan was designed to be straightforward and accessible, ensuring that every affected customer could easily claim what they were owed. The primary goal was to make the process as seamless as possible, minimizing any further burden on customers.Walmart provided several options for customers to receive compensation, each tailored to different customer preferences and circumstances:

• Full Refunds: Customers could receive a complete refund for the overcharged amount, reflecting the difference between the price charged and the correct price of the milk.
• Vouchers: In addition to refunds, customers could receive vouchers for future purchases at Walmart, offering an added incentive for their continued patronage.
• Future Discounts: Customers might be offered discounts on specific items or on their overall shopping cart during a future visit, adding value to their shopping experience.

Claiming Refunds and Compensation

To facilitate the claims process, Walmart established multiple channels for customers to seek compensation. These channels were designed to accommodate various customer preferences and ensure accessibility.Customers could choose from the following methods to claim their refund or compensation:

• In-Store Claims: Customers could visit any Walmart store in Manitoba, present their receipt (if available), and receive their refund or compensation directly from a customer service representative.
• Online Claims: Walmart set up a dedicated online portal where customers could submit their claims, providing necessary information such as purchase dates and amounts.
• Customer Service Helpline: A toll-free customer service helpline was available for customers who preferred to make their claims over the phone.

Types of Redress and Eligibility

Walmart’s redress strategy was structured to provide a range of compensation options, ensuring fairness and flexibility for all affected customers. The following table summarizes the different types of redress offered and their respective eligibility criteria:

Type of Redress	Description	Eligibility Criteria	Process for Claiming
Full Refund	A complete reimbursement of the overcharged amount.	Customers who purchased one-liter milk cartons at an inflated price during the specified period.	Presenting a receipt (if available) or providing purchase details (date, approximate amount) at a Walmart store, online, or via phone.
Walmart Vouchers	Vouchers for a set amount, redeemable at any Walmart store.	Customers who successfully claimed a refund. The voucher value could vary.	Automatically issued upon successful refund claim (in-store, online, or via phone). Vouchers could be used during the next visit.
Future Discounts	Discounts on specific products or on the total purchase during a future shopping trip.	Customers who were identified as having been overcharged, even without a receipt.	Applied automatically at the checkout during a future shopping trip after a claim was processed.
Combination of Options	A combination of the above, depending on the specifics of the purchase and claim.	All affected customers.	Depending on the claim channel, customers could choose or receive a combination of options.

Preventative Measures: Walmart Temporarily Overcharged Customers In Manitoba For One Litre Milk Cartons

Following the Manitoba milk pricing issue, Walmart took decisive action to ensure such an incident wouldn’t happen again. The company recognized the importance of rebuilding trust and preventing future errors, implementing a comprehensive plan to fortify its pricing systems and operational procedures.

Enhanced Internal Procedures

Walmart overhauled several internal procedures to prevent future pricing discrepancies. This involved a multi-pronged approach focused on improving price accuracy at the source and strengthening oversight.

• Price Verification Audits: Walmart implemented a system of regular and rigorous price verification audits across all stores. These audits involve randomly checking shelf prices against the point-of-sale (POS) system. If a discrepancy is found, it triggers an immediate investigation and correction. This includes spot checks by both store associates and dedicated auditing teams.
• Training and Education: Increased training for employees involved in price management, from shelf stocking to POS operation, is now a mandatory requirement. This training emphasizes the importance of accurate pricing, the potential consequences of errors, and the procedures for correcting discrepancies. Refresher courses and ongoing education are part of the program to ensure continuous improvement.
• Centralized Price Management: Walmart is moving towards greater centralization of price management. This allows for better control and oversight of pricing changes. The centralized system ensures that price updates are implemented consistently across all stores, reducing the risk of human error in local price adjustments.
• Supplier Collaboration: Walmart is working more closely with its suppliers to improve the accuracy of product information. This includes collaborating on standardized product data feeds and ensuring that pricing information is accurate and up-to-date from the start.

Technological Advancements

Walmart invested in technology to enhance its pricing accuracy and prevent future issues. The focus was on automation and real-time data management.

• Automated Price Updates: The company is using automated systems to update prices in its POS systems. These systems are designed to minimize manual input, reducing the likelihood of human error. They can automatically update prices based on changes from suppliers or central pricing directives.
• Advanced Scanning Technology: Walmart is rolling out advanced scanning technology in its stores. This technology includes improved barcode scanners and systems that can quickly identify and flag potential pricing errors. These systems also offer real-time price checks during checkout.
• Real-time Price Monitoring: Walmart is implementing real-time price monitoring systems. These systems continuously monitor prices across all stores, identifying and correcting discrepancies as they occur. They provide immediate alerts to store management when a price mismatch is detected.
• Enhanced Data Analytics: Walmart is leveraging data analytics to identify and address potential pricing issues proactively. By analyzing sales data, price changes, and other relevant information, the company can identify patterns and trends that might indicate pricing errors or inefficiencies.

“Our goal is to create a seamless and accurate shopping experience for our customers. These preventative measures are a critical step in achieving that goal.”

Similar Incidents

The Manitoba milk misstep, while specific in its product and location, unfortunately isn’t a unique event in the retail world. Overcharging, whether due to human error, system glitches, or deliberate actions, has occurred across various retailers and geographies. Examining these similar incidents provides valuable context for understanding the common threads and varied responses.

Comparative Analysis of Overcharging Cases

Several overcharging incidents share similarities with the Manitoba case, offering insights into how retailers react and the consequences they face. These cases highlight the importance of robust pricing systems, diligent employee training, and transparent communication with customers.

• Walmart’s US Price-Scanner Errors (2003): In 2003, Walmart in the United States faced accusations of widespread price-scanner errors that resulted in overcharges for customers. This involved incorrect prices at checkout, discrepancies between shelf prices and the charged amount. The retailer settled a class-action lawsuit for $35 million, demonstrating the significant financial and reputational impact of such errors. This settlement covered customers in multiple states and addressed the need for improved price accuracy.

• Target’s Pricing Errors (Various Locations): Target, another major retailer, has also experienced pricing errors. These incidents, often stemming from mislabeled products or system malfunctions, have led to customer complaints and negative media coverage. Target has responded with apologies and efforts to rectify the errors, including offering refunds or price adjustments to affected customers.
• Amazon’s Dynamic Pricing Fluctuation: Amazon, known for its dynamic pricing strategies, has occasionally faced scrutiny regarding rapid price fluctuations and perceived overcharging. While not always directly comparable to the Manitoba case, these instances highlight the complexities of modern pricing systems and the importance of transparency.

Common Elements and Differences

Examining these incidents reveals recurring themes and notable variations.

• Common Elements:
  • Pricing Errors: At the heart of each case lies an error in the pricing process, whether it’s a manual mistake, a system glitch, or a failure to update prices correctly.
  • Customer Impact: Customers are directly affected, paying more than the advertised or intended price. This can lead to financial losses for individual customers and erode trust in the retailer.
  • Reputational Damage: Overcharging incidents often generate negative publicity, damaging the retailer’s brand image and potentially leading to a decline in customer loyalty.
  • Regulatory Scrutiny: Retailers may face investigations or audits by consumer protection agencies or other regulatory bodies.
• Differences:
  • Scale of the Incident: The scope of overcharging can vary significantly, from isolated errors affecting a few customers to widespread issues impacting thousands.
  • Causes: The root causes can differ, including human error (e.g., incorrect price tags), technical malfunctions (e.g., faulty scanners), or intentional actions (e.g., fraudulent pricing schemes).
  • Response Strategies: Retailers’ responses vary. Some offer immediate refunds and apologies, while others may initially deny wrongdoing or take a more defensive approach.
  • Legal and Financial Consequences: The legal and financial repercussions can range from minor settlements to significant fines and class-action lawsuits.

“Accuracy in pricing is not just a matter of compliance; it is fundamental to building and maintaining customer trust.”

Public Perception and Reaction

The Manitoba milk overcharging incident sparked a significant public reaction, revealing a complex interplay of consumer sentiment, media scrutiny, and the impact on Walmart’s brand image. This section delves into the nuances of public response, dissecting both the immediate fallout and the long-term implications for the retail giant.

Initial Public Response

The news of the overcharging, however unintentional, quickly spread across various media platforms. Social media, in particular, became a battleground of opinions, with customers and the public at large expressing a range of views. The incident, happening in a province with a strong sense of community, amplified the impact.

Impact on Walmart’s Reputation

The overcharging incident cast a shadow on Walmart’s carefully cultivated image. While the company has historically positioned itself as a provider of affordable goods, the milk pricing error eroded trust and fueled skepticism about its commitment to fair pricing practices. The damage to the brand’s reputation was substantial, requiring concerted efforts to rebuild consumer confidence. Consider the impact on a local scale, where residents may frequent stores within their area.

“Trust is like a mirror, you can fix it if it’s broken, but you can still see the crack in that reflection.”

Lady Gaga (Modified)

Positive and Negative Sentiments

The public’s response was a mix of outrage, disappointment, and, in some cases, understanding. To illustrate the range of sentiments, consider the following:

• Negative Sentiments:
  • Anger over being overcharged, especially for an essential item like milk.
  • Distrust of Walmart’s pricing practices and perceived lack of transparency.
  • Accusations of corporate greed and exploitation of consumers.
  • Calls for stricter regulatory oversight of pricing accuracy.
  • Frustration with the inconvenience caused by the error.
• Positive Sentiments:
  • Appreciation for Walmart’s quick response and apology.
  • Recognition of the incident as an honest mistake, not necessarily malicious.
  • Praise for the company’s efforts to rectify the situation, including offering refunds.
  • Some customers expressed understanding of the complexities of managing pricing across multiple stores.
  • Acknowledgment of Walmart’s overall commitment to low prices and accessibility.

Long-Term Effects

The Manitoba milk overcharge incident, though seemingly localized, casts a long shadow. The ramifications extend beyond the immediate financial impact, potentially reshaping Walmart’s standing in the province and influencing consumer behavior for years to come. The enduring effects are multifaceted, impacting customer trust, brand perception, and ultimately, the retailer’s bottom line.

Changes in Customer Behavior

The incident is likely to prompt noticeable shifts in how Manitobans approach their Walmart shopping experiences. Consumers are, after all, creatures of habit, but also keenly sensitive to perceived unfairness.

• Increased Scrutiny: Shoppers may begin meticulously checking prices at the point of sale, especially on frequently purchased items like milk and other staples. This heightened vigilance could slow down checkout lines and necessitate more staff dedicated to price verification. This is similar to what happened after the 2013 horse meat scandal in the UK, where consumers became far more critical of the origins and labeling of meat products.

• Reduced Loyalty: While Walmart enjoys a significant market share, some customers might be swayed to explore alternative retailers, particularly those perceived as more trustworthy. The availability of online price comparison tools makes switching retailers easier than ever. The rise of Amazon and other online retailers shows the customer behaviour.
• Shift in Shopping Habits: Some consumers may choose to buy milk and similar products from smaller, local businesses, viewing them as more transparent and less prone to such errors. This could impact Walmart’s sales volume for those specific items.
• Demand for Transparency: Customers are likely to demand greater transparency from Walmart regarding pricing practices, inventory management, and error resolution. They will be more vocal about their concerns and expect swift and clear communication from the company.

Impact on Customer Trust

The erosion of customer trust is arguably the most significant long-term consequence. Rebuilding trust takes considerable time and effort, requiring consistent actions that demonstrate integrity and accountability.

“A breach of trust, especially in matters of price, can have a lasting impact. Consumers remember these incidents, and it can take years of consistent positive experiences to fully restore confidence in a brand. The perception of value is critical, and any event that undermines that perception can lead to a decline in sales and market share.”Dr. Anya Sharma, Professor of Marketing, University of Manitoba.